Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary
state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia[60] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.[61] The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces,
and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign
affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not
required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential
election was the first in which the people directly elected the
president and vice president.[62] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.[63]
The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly
(MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution,
inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state
policy. It has the power to impeach the president.[64] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.[65] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[61] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.[66] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.[67]
Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri);
appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme
Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final
cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the
Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State
Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law
cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah
Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general
elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority
of state institutions; and a Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal
with codified Sharia Law cases.[68]
Selasa, 19 Februari 2013
indonesia p.3
Fossils and the remains of tools show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", between 1.5 million years ago and as recently as 35,000 years ago.[15][16][17] Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[18] In 2011 evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor,
showing that 42,000 years ago these early settlers had high-level
maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean
crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching
and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.[19]
Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[20] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[21] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.[22] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[23][24]
The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.
From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[25][26] Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.[27]
Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[28] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[29] The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[30] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.[31]
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.[32] Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the Indonesian National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,[33][34] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.[35] A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[36] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.[37][38][39][40] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and the resulting conflict ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence[38][41] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).[42]
Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president
Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and
maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[43] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[44][45][46] Around 500,000 people are estimated to have been killed.[47][48] The head of the military, General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration[49] was supported by the US government,[50][51][52] and encouraged foreign direct investment
in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades
of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New Order"
was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.[33][53][54]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis.[55] This led to popular protest against the New Order which led to Suharto's resignation in May 1998.[56] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[57] Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence has occurred.[58] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[59]
Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[20] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[21] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.[22] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[23][24]
Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[28] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[29] The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[30] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.[31]
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.[32] Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the Indonesian National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,[33][34] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.[35] A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[36] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.[37][38][39][40] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and the resulting conflict ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence[38][41] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).[42]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis.[55] This led to popular protest against the New Order which led to Suharto's resignation in May 1998.[56] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[57] Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence has occurred.[58] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[59]
indonesia p.2
The name Indonesia derives from the Latin and Greek Indus, and the Greek nèsos, meaning "island".[8] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.[9] In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[10] In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[11][12] However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[13]
After 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[13] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.[9]
After 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[13] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.[9]
indonesia p.1
Indonesia (
i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ IN-doh-NEE-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation: [rɛpʊblik ɪndonesia]), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands.[5] It has 34 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's sixteenth largest by nominal GDP and fifteenth largest by purchasing power parity.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest—and politically dominant—ethnic group are the Javanese. A shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread.[6][7]
i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ IN-doh-NEE-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation: [rɛpʊblik ɪndonesia]), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands.[5] It has 34 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's sixteenth largest by nominal GDP and fifteenth largest by purchasing power parity.The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest—and politically dominant—ethnic group are the Javanese. A shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread.[6][7]
jakarta p.10
Jakarta is a shopping hub in the nation also one of the best places to shop in South East Asia. The city has numerous shopping malls
and traditional markets. The annual "Jakarta Great Sale" is held every
year on June and July to celebrate Jakarta's anniversary with about 73
participating shopping centers in 2012.[60]
Malls such as Plaza Indonesia, Plaza Senayan and Senayan City provides numerous selections of luxury brands. Mall Taman Anggrek, Pondok Indah Mall and Central Park Jakarta cater high-street brands such as UK's Topshop and Europe's Zara [61]
United Kingdom's number one department store, Debenhams has 3 outlets in the city, the first one on Senayan City, Supermall Karawaci and Lippo Mall Kemang Village. Japan's international Sogo department store has about 6 department stores which spread around shopping malls in the city. Seibu flagship store is located on Grand Indonesia Shopping Town. And French luxury department store, Galeries Lafayette will open its doors for the first time on South East Asia in Pacific Place Jakarta.
Internationally known luxury brands such as Louis Vuitton, Bulgari, Chanel, Gucci, Christian Louboutin, Balenciaga, and Giorgio Armani can be easily found on Jakarta's luxury shopping malls.
Satrio-Casablanca corridor, 3.5 kilometre-long street that is a new shopping belt in Jakarta.[62] Many multistorey shopping centres are located here, such as Kuningan City, Mal Ambassador, and Kota Kasablanka. And Satrio-Casablanca's largest shopping centre, Ciputra World Jakarta, will opened in 2013.
Traditional markets include Blok M, Tanah Abang, Senen, Pasar Baru, Glodok, Mangga Dua, Cempaka Mas, and Jatinegara. In Jakarta there are also markets that sells specified collectable items, such as antique goods in Surabaya Street and gemstones in Rawabening Market.
Malls such as Plaza Indonesia, Plaza Senayan and Senayan City provides numerous selections of luxury brands. Mall Taman Anggrek, Pondok Indah Mall and Central Park Jakarta cater high-street brands such as UK's Topshop and Europe's Zara [61]
United Kingdom's number one department store, Debenhams has 3 outlets in the city, the first one on Senayan City, Supermall Karawaci and Lippo Mall Kemang Village. Japan's international Sogo department store has about 6 department stores which spread around shopping malls in the city. Seibu flagship store is located on Grand Indonesia Shopping Town. And French luxury department store, Galeries Lafayette will open its doors for the first time on South East Asia in Pacific Place Jakarta.
Internationally known luxury brands such as Louis Vuitton, Bulgari, Chanel, Gucci, Christian Louboutin, Balenciaga, and Giorgio Armani can be easily found on Jakarta's luxury shopping malls.
Satrio-Casablanca corridor, 3.5 kilometre-long street that is a new shopping belt in Jakarta.[62] Many multistorey shopping centres are located here, such as Kuningan City, Mal Ambassador, and Kota Kasablanka. And Satrio-Casablanca's largest shopping centre, Ciputra World Jakarta, will opened in 2013.
Traditional markets include Blok M, Tanah Abang, Senen, Pasar Baru, Glodok, Mangga Dua, Cempaka Mas, and Jatinegara. In Jakarta there are also markets that sells specified collectable items, such as antique goods in Surabaya Street and gemstones in Rawabening Market.
jakarta p.9
Water Supply
Two private companies, PALYJA and Aetra, provide piped water supply in the western and eastern half of Jakarta respectively under 25-year concession contracts signed in 1998. A public asset holding company called PAM Jaya owns the infrastructure. 80% of the water distributed in Jakarta comes through the West Tarum Canal system from Jatiluhur reservoir on the Citarum River 70 km (43 mi) southeast of the city. Water supply had been privatized by government of then President Suharto in 1998 to the French company Suez Environnement and the British company Thames Water International. Both foreign companies subsequently sold their concessions to Indonesian companies. Customer growth in the 7 first years of the concessions had been lower than before, despite substantial inflation-adjusted tariff increases during this period. In 2005 tariffs were frozen, leading the private water companies to cut down on investments.
According to PALYJA in its western half of the concession the service coverage ratio increased substantially from 34% in 1998 to 59% in 2007 and 65% in 2010.[52] According to data by the Jakarta Water Supply Regulatory Body, access in the eastern half of the city served by PTJ increased from about 57% in 1998 to about 67% in 2004, but stagnated after that.[53] However, other sources cite much lower access figures for piped water supply to houses, excluding access provided through public hydrants: One study estimated access as low as 25% in 2005,[54] while another source estimates it to be as low as 18.5% in 2011.[55] Those without access to piped water supply get water mostly from wells that are often salty and polluted with bacteria.
Two private companies, PALYJA and Aetra, provide piped water supply in the western and eastern half of Jakarta respectively under 25-year concession contracts signed in 1998. A public asset holding company called PAM Jaya owns the infrastructure. 80% of the water distributed in Jakarta comes through the West Tarum Canal system from Jatiluhur reservoir on the Citarum River 70 km (43 mi) southeast of the city. Water supply had been privatized by government of then President Suharto in 1998 to the French company Suez Environnement and the British company Thames Water International. Both foreign companies subsequently sold their concessions to Indonesian companies. Customer growth in the 7 first years of the concessions had been lower than before, despite substantial inflation-adjusted tariff increases during this period. In 2005 tariffs were frozen, leading the private water companies to cut down on investments.
According to PALYJA in its western half of the concession the service coverage ratio increased substantially from 34% in 1998 to 59% in 2007 and 65% in 2010.[52] According to data by the Jakarta Water Supply Regulatory Body, access in the eastern half of the city served by PTJ increased from about 57% in 1998 to about 67% in 2004, but stagnated after that.[53] However, other sources cite much lower access figures for piped water supply to houses, excluding access provided through public hydrants: One study estimated access as low as 25% in 2005,[54] while another source estimates it to be as low as 18.5% in 2011.[55] Those without access to piped water supply get water mostly from wells that are often salty and polluted with bacteria.
jakarta p.8
Governance
A new law in 2007 forbids the giving of money to beggars, buskers and hawkers, bans squatter settlements on river banks and highways, and prohibits spitting and smoking on public transportation. Unauthorized people cleaning car windscreens and taking tips for directing traffic at intersections will also be penalized. Critics of the new legislation claim that such laws will be difficult to enforce and it tends to ignore the desperate poverty of many of the capital's inhabitants.[50]Copying an idea implemented in Singapore's Orchard Road, in 2011, the Jakarta administration said that it would restrict on-street parking on Jl Hayam Wuruk (Haram Wuruk St) and Jl Gajah Mada in Central Jakarta. It said it would also remove illegal vendors and beggars from pavements and streets in the area.[51] In practice, these measures have only been partially successful.
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